Module 1 Part 1: People and Theories
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. This field examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development from infancy through old age. Developmental psychologists aim to understand how people grow, adapt, and change throughout different stages of life.
The lifespan perspective in developmental psychology emphasizes that development is a lifelong process, from birth to death, and is influenced by a complex interplay of biological, psychological, and social factors. This approach sees development as a continuous process that is multidirectional, plastic, contextual, and influenced by multiple factors.
Key Principles
Lifelong: Development does not stop at a certain age but continues throughout the entire lifespan.
Multidimensional: Development is affected by an intricate interplay of various dimensions, including biological, cognitive, and socioemotional factors.
Multidirectional: Development can take many paths. Different capacities can increase or decrease at different points in life.
Plasticity: Developmental changes can occur at any stage of life. Individuals have the capacity for change in response to influential experiences.
Contextual: Development is influenced by various contexts, including historical, economic, social, and cultural factors.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist known for his pioneering work in child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development has been highly influential in both psychology and education.
Theory of Cognitive Development. Piaget proposed that children move through four stages of cognitive development:
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Knowledge is acquired through sensory experiences and manipulating objects.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Development of language and symbolic thinking, yet thinking is still egocentric.
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Development of logical thought about concrete events, understanding of conservation.
Formal Operational Stage (12 years and up): Development of abstract and scientific thinking.
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychosocial development across the lifespan. Erikson's model of development emphasizes the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan.
Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development. Erikson proposed that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that must be resolved:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy): Developing trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood): Developing a sense of personal control and independence.
Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool Years): Asserting control and power over the environment.
Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age): Coping with new social and academic demands.
Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence): Developing a personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood): Forming intimate, loving relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood): Creating or nurturing things that will outlast oneself.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood): Reflecting on life and feeling a sense of fulfillment or regret.
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) was a Russian-born American developmental psychologist best known for his ecological systems theory. He co-founded the Head Start program, which aims to provide early childhood education, health, and nutrition services to low-income children and families.
Ecological Systems Theory. Bronfenbrenner’s theory posits that human development is influenced by different types of environmental systems. He categorized these into five levels:
Microsystem: Immediate environments such as family, school, and peer group.
Mesosystem: Interconnections between microsystems.
Exosystem: External environmental settings that indirectly affect development, such as parents' workplaces.
Macrosystem: The broader cultural and societal context.
Chronosystem: The dimension of time, reflecting changes and transitions over the lifespan.
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Soviet psychologist who made significant contributions to developmental psychology and educational theory. His work, which emphasized the social contexts of learning, was largely unknown in the West until it was translated after his death.
Sociocultural Theory. Vygotsky's theory focuses on the fundamental role of social interaction in cognitive development. He believed that community and language play central roles in the process of "making meaning."
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This concept refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what they can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner.
Scaffolding: Related to the ZPD, scaffolding involves providing support to students as they learn new concepts, gradually removing the support as they become more competent.
BF Skinner (1904-1990) was an American psychologist and behaviorist known for his work in operant conditioning.
Key Contributions
Operant Conditioning: Skinner developed the theory of operant conditioning, which explains how behaviors are influenced by their consequences (reinforcements and punishments).
Skinner Box: He invented the Skinner box, a device used to study the principles of operant conditioning with animals.
Behavior Modification: Skinner's work laid the foundation for behavior modification techniques used in various fields, including education and therapy.
John B. Watson (1878-1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism.
Key Contributions
Behaviorism: Watson promoted the idea that psychology should focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states.
Little Albert Experiment: He is famous for the Little Albert experiment, which demonstrated that emotional responses could be conditioned in humans.
Classical Conditioning: Watson's work extended the principles of classical conditioning (initially developed by Ivan Pavlov) to human behavior.
Albert Bandura (1925-2021) was a Canadian-American psychologist known for his social learning theory.
Key Contributions
Social Learning Theory: Bandura proposed that people learn through observation, imitation, and modeling.
Bobo Doll Experiment: His famous Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children could learn aggressive behaviors by observing adults.
Self-Efficacy: Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.