Module 4 Part 3: Social Psychology
Social Psychology. The scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts.
Example: Investigating how peer pressure influences behavior among teenagers.
Fundamental Attribution Error. The tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviors.
Example: Assuming someone is rude because they didn't greet you, without considering they might be having a bad day.
Attitude. A psychological tendency expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor.
Example: Having a positive attitude towards recycling and actively participating in it.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon. The tendency for people to comply with a large request if they have first agreed to a small request.
Example: Agreeing to sign a petition, and later being more likely to donate to the same cause.
Role. A set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
Example: The role of a student includes attending classes, studying, and participating in school activities.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory. The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when our thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors are inconsistent.
Example: A person who values health but smokes might quit smoking to resolve the dissonance.
Peripheral Route Persuasion. Persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.
Example: Buying a product because a popular celebrity endorsed it.
Central Route Persuasion. Persuasion that occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
Example: Choosing a political candidate based on their detailed policy proposals.
Culture. The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
Example: Cultural norms about personal space differ between countries.
Tight Culture. Cultures with strong norms and a low tolerance for deviant behavior.
Example: Japan, where social rules are strictly followed and deviations are frowned upon.
Loose Culture. Cultures with weak norms and a high tolerance for deviant behavior.
Example: The United States, where individualism and freedom of expression are highly valued.
Conformity. Adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Example: Dressing similarly to your friends to fit in.
Normative Social Influence. Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
Example: Laughing at a joke you don't find funny because everyone else is laughing.
Informational Social Influence. Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality.
Example: Deciding to evacuate during a hurricane warning because others are doing so.
Social Facilitation. Improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
Example: Running faster when competing in a race compared to running alone.
Social Loafing. The tendency for people to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal than when individually accountable.
Example: Group projects where some members contribute less because they rely on others to pick up the slack.
Deindividuation. The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Example: Rioting and looting during a large protest.
Group Polarization. The enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
Example: A group's opinion becoming more extreme after discussing a topic they all initially agreed on.
Groupthink. The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Example: A company's executives deciding on a flawed strategy because dissenting opinions are discouraged.
Prejudice. An unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members.
Example: Holding a biased opinion about people from a different ethnicity.
Stereotype. A generalized belief about a group of people.
Example: Believing that all elderly people are bad at using technology.
Discrimination. Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members based on their membership in that group.
Example: Refusing to hire someone because of their race.
Implicit Bias. Attitudes or stereotypes that affect our understanding, actions, and decisions in an unconscious manner.
Example: A teacher giving less attention to students of a certain race without realizing it.
Just-World Phenomenon. The tendency to believe that the world is just and people get what they deserve.
Example: Assuming that a homeless person must have made poor choices to end up in that situation.
Ingroup. "Us"—people with whom we share a common identity.
Example: Your family, friends, or people who share your hobbies.
Outgroup. "Them"—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.
Example: Fans of a rival sports team.
Ingroup Bias. The tendency to favor our own group.
Example: Preferring your colleagues' ideas over those from another department.
Scapegoat Theory. The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
Example: Blaming immigrants for economic downturns.
Other-Race Effect. The tendency to recognize faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races.
Example: Finding it harder to distinguish between faces of a different race.
Aggression. Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
Example: Shouting insults at someone in anger.
Frustration-Aggression Principle. The principle that frustration creates anger, which can generate aggression.
Example: Road rage incidents caused by traffic delays.
Social Script. Culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.
Example: Knowing to shake hands when meeting someone in a professional context.
Mere Exposure Effect. The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.
Example: Liking a song more after hearing it several times on the radio.
Passionate Love. An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
Example: The "honeymoon phase" of a romantic relationship.
Companionate Love. The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.
Example: Long-term marriage where partners are best friends and deeply committed to each other.
Equity. A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
Example: Both partners in a relationship contributing equally to household chores.
Self-Disclosure. Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
Example: Sharing personal fears and dreams with a close friend.
Altruism. Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
Example: Volunteering at a homeless shelter without expecting anything in return.
Bystander Effect. The tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Example: Not helping someone in distress because you assume others will.
Reciprocity Norm. An expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
Example: Feeling obligated to help a colleague who previously helped you with a project.
Social-Responsibility Norm. An expectation that people will help those needing help.
Example: Donating to charity to support those in need.
Conflict. A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Example: Disagreements between coworkers about the direction of a project.
Mirror-Image Perceptions. Mutual views often held by conflicting people, where each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and the other side as evil and aggressive.
Example: Opposing political groups viewing each other as the enemy.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. A belief that leads to its own fulfillment.
Example: Believing you will fail a test, leading to anxiety and poor performance, thus causing failure.
Superordinate Goals. Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
Example: Team members from different departments working together to complete a project successfully.